Prescripción inadecuada de medicamentos: aportaciones de los paradigmas científicos a su conocimiento / Inadequate drugs prescription: contributions of scientific paradigms to your knowledge

Resumen Se realizó una revisión narrativa con análisis temático sobre las aportaciones de los paradigmas científicos al conocimiento de la prescripción inadecuada de medicamentos. Se buscaron artículos de acceso abierto indexados en PubMed© entre 2010-2014, y se sistematizó información sobre el paradigma, tipo de publicación, perspectiva teórica, objetivo, método y resultados. De los 992 artículos encontrados, se seleccionaron 118, y se tomó una muestra propositiva de 15, según su diseño, representando los cuatro paradigmas. Los artículos positivistas reportaron prevalencia, factores asociados, efectividad de intervenciones y criterios de evaluación; los interpretativos explicaron las causas del problema según los involucrados; los críticos denunciaron la influencia de la industria farmacéutica; y el participativo abordó el problema secundariamente y lo solucionó en un escenario para una enfermedad y grupo farmacológico específicos. Se concluyó que la prescripción inadecuada de medicamentos como problema de investigación en salud pública recibe aportes de los cuatro paradigmas, con dominio del positivismo, lo que se atribuye al carácter paradigmático de la ciencia desde la que se le aborda habitualmente, y que una perspectiva multi-paradigmática es el mejor abordaje.

Abstract This study conducted a narrative review with thematic analysis about contributions of scientific paradigms to knowledge of inadequate drugs prescription. We searched open access articles indexed in PubMed© between 2010 and 2014, and we systematized information about scientific paradigm, publication type, theoretical perspective, objective, method and results. From the 992 articles found, 118 were selected. From those, we chose a purposive sample of 15, according to the design of the studies, representing the four paradigms. The positivists articles reported prevalence, associated factors, effectiveness of interventions and evaluation criteria; the interpretive explained the causes of the problem according to those involved; the critics denounced the influence of pharmaceutical industry; and the participative addressed the problem secondarily and solved it in a scenario for a specific disease and pharmacological. We concluded that the inadequate drugs prescription as research problem in public health had contributions from the four paradigms, with dominance of positivism, which is attributed to the paradigmatic perspective of the science, from which it is usually studied, and that a multi-paradigmatic perspective is the best approach to the public health issue.

Clinical competence of Guatemalan and Mexican physicians for family dysfunction management.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical competence of Mexican and Guatemalan physicians to management the family dysfunction. METHODS: Cross comparative study in four care units first in Guadalajara, Mexico, and four in Guatemala, Guatemala, based on a purposeful sampling, involving 117 and 100 physicians, respectively. Clinical competence evaluated by validated instrument integrated for 187 items. Non-parametric descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: The percentage of Mexican physicians with high clinical competence was 13.7%, medium 53%, low 24.8% and defined by random 8.5%. For the Guatemalan physicians'14% was high, average 63%, and 23% defined by random. There were no statistically significant differences between healthcare country units, but between the medium of Mexicans (0.55) and Guatemalans (0.55) (p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: The proportion of the high clinical competency of Mexican physicians' was as Guatemalans.

Efecto de una intervención educativa para promover ejercicios aeróbicos intradialíticos, sobre el estado funcional en pacientes en hemodiálisis de México / Effect of an educational intervention to promote intradialysis aerobic exercises on the functional state of hemodialysis patients from Mexico

INTRODUCCIÓN: La educación en salud busca influir sobre la actitud de las personas para mejorar su salud mediante el fomento de hábitos saludables. En pacientes en hemodiálisis, su capacidad funcional suele estar disminuida por la inactividad física. OBJETIVO: Evaluar el efecto de una intervención educativa en salud para la promoción del ejercicio aeróbico, sobre la capacidad funcional de pacientes en hemodiálisis de México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio cuasiexperimental antes-después con grupo control en Unidades de Atención Médica Hospitalaria del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Delegación Jalisco, con un universo de 26 pacientes con hemodiálisis muestreados propositivamente, 14 en el Grupo "A" (experimental) y 12 en el "B" (control). Se incluyeron las variables: edad, sexo y capacidad funcional. La intervención consistió en un diálogo dirigido sobre factores biopsicosociales de enfermedad renal, capacidad funcional y nutrición, con acompañamiento en ejercicios aeróbicos de 30 minutos/semana durante 20 semanas. Se evaluó la capacidad funcional con el Test Delta, y se comparó la media antes y después usando T de Student (p ≤ 0,05). RESULTADOS: No hubo diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre la edad y sexo de los pacientes en los Grupos "A" y "B". Capacidad funcional media antes y después: Grupo "A" 14 ± 5 vs 8 ± 4 (p < 0,001), Grupo "B" 16 ± 4 vs 17 ± 5 (p = 0,405). Conclusiones: La educación en salud influyó favorablemente sobre la actividad física de los pacientes en hemodiálisis y mejoró su capacidad funcional. Es recomendable implementar programas de ejercicio aeróbico durante las sesiones de hemodiálisis

INTRODUCTION: Health education search to influence on persons' attitude for to improve your health by mean of healthy habits promotion. In patients with hemodialysis your functional capacity usually is diminished for physical inactivity. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of a health education intervention for aerobic exercise's promotion on the functional capacity in hemodialysis patients from Mexico. METHODS: Quasi-experimental study beforeafter with control group in Hospital Medical Care Units of the Mexican Institute of Social Security, Jalisco's Delegation, with a universe of 26 patients with hemodialysis purposively sampled, 14 in Group "A" (experimental) and 12 in Group "B" (control). It included variables: age, gender and functional capacity. The intervention consisted of directed dialogue on biopsychosocial factors of renal disease, functional capacity and nutrition, with accompaniment in aerobic exercises of 30 minutes/week for 20 weeks. It evaluated functional capacity with Delta Test and it compared means before and after with Student's T (p ≤ 0,05). Results: There were no statistically significant differences between age and gender of patients in the "A" and "B" Groups. Mean functional capacity before and after: Group "A" 14 ± 5 vs 8 ± 4 (p < 0,001), Group "B" 16 ± 4 vs 17 ± 5(p=0,405). CONCLUSIONS: The health education influenced favorably on the physical activity of patients with hemodialysis and improved your functional capacity. To implement aerobic exercise programs during hemodialysis sessions it advisable

Clinical competencies for primary health care of climacteric in a group of Mexican physicians / Competências clínicas para cuidados de saúde primários de climatério em um grupo de médicos Mexicanos

Objective: Measure clinical competence for female climacteric diagnosis and treatment in physicians from a Mexican social security system. Methods: Cross-sectional and multi-centric study in 78 physicians from five primary health care units from the Mexican Institute of Social Security in Guadalajara City, Jalisco, Mexico. We measured clinical competence with an instrument specially designed and validated (reliability p = 0.92 accord to Kuder­Richardson test). We obtained descriptive statistics and compared proficiency level accord to labor, demographic and academic characteristics using no-parametric statistic. Results: Clinical competencies medians in five primary health care units were 8­21 points in a scale with maximum value of 108. We do not found significant differences to compare medical unit, gender, specialty, previous training in female climacteric symptoms, contract type, workshift and medical certifications (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Climacteric clinical competence is null or very low in primary health care physicians from Guadalajara City. Educational interventions are required.(AU)

Objetivo: Medir competência clínica para o diagnóstico e tratamento do climatério feminino nos médicos a partir de um sistema de segurança social mexicano. Métodos: Estudo transversal e multicêntrico com 78 médicos de cinco unidades básicas de saúde do Instituto Mexicano de Segurança Social na Cidade de Guadalajara, Jalisco, México. Medimos competência clínica com um instrumento especialmente concebido e validado (confiabilidade p = 0,92 de acordo com o teste de Kuder-Richardson). Obtivemos estatística descritiva e comparação do nível de proficiência no trabalho de acordo com as características demográficas e acadêmicas com o uso do método não paramétrico. Resultados: Competências clínicas medianas em cinco unidades básicas de saúde foram de 8 a 21 pontos em uma escala com valor máximo de 108. Não se encontraram diferenc¸as significativas para comparar unidade médica, sexo, especialidade, treinamento prévio em sintomas do climatério feminino, tipo de contrato, turno de trabalho e certificações médicas (p > 0,05). Conclusões: Competência clínica para o diagnóstico e tratamento do climatério é nula ou muito baixa em cuidados médicos primários de saúde na Cidade de Guadalajara. Intervenções educativas são necessárias.(AU)

Mortalidad por homicidios en México: tendencias, variaciones socio-geográficas y factores asociados / Deaths by homicide in Mexico: trends, socio-geographical variations and associated factors

Este estudio analiza la tendencia de las tasas de homicidio (total y por arma de fuego) en México entre 1990 y 2009 e identifica las variables que mejor explican las variaciones geográficas de las tasas en el bienio 2008-2009. Se calcularon tasas de homicidios, ajustadas por edad, para ambos sexos entre 1990 y 2009, y para cada estado en 2008-2009. El análisis de regresión lineal múltiple fue usado para identificar factores asociados a las variaciones interestatales de las tasas de homicidio. Los resultados muestran que la tasa de homicidio disminuyó entre 1992 y 2007, pero se ha duplicado en los últimos dos años (de 7.6 a 16.6 por 100,000). En 2009, la tasa de homicidio masculina fue cerca de 9 veces mayor que la tasa femenina y casi dos tercios de los homicidios fueron por arma de fuego. El análisis multivariado revela que la impunidad, el narcotráfico, el consumo de alcohol y drogas y la deserción escolar -por ese orden- son factores claves para entender las variaciones geográficas de las tasas de homicidio en México en 2008-2009. Así, para reducir los homicidios y las variaciones espaciales de la tasa, se necesita no solo combatir a los cárteles de la droga sino sobre todo implementar reformas estructurales en el sistema de procuración de justicia y disminuir las disparidades socioeconómicas entre los estados.

This study seeks to analyze the trend of homicide rates (total and by firearm) in Mexico between 1990 and 2009 and identify the variables that best explain the geographical variations of these rates in the 2008-2009 two-year period. Homicide rates, adjusted for age, were calculated for both sexes between 1990 and 2009 and for each state in 2008-2009. Factors associated with the interstate variations in the homicide rates were identified using multiple linear regression analysis. Results show that the homicide rate in Mexico decreased between 1990 and 2007, but doubled over the last two years (from 7.6 to 16.6 per 100,000). In 2009, the male homicide rate was almost 9 times higher than the female rate and about two-thirds of homicides involved firearms. Multivariate analysis reveals that impunity, drug trafficking, alcohol and drug consumption and school dropout in basic education - in that order - are key factors for understanding the geographical variations in homicide rates in Mexico in 2008-2009. Findings suggest that to reduce the number of homicide victims and spatial variations in the rate, it is necessary not only to fight the drug cartels, but above all to implement structural reforms in the criminal justice system and reduce the socioeconomic disparities among states.

[Deaths by homicide in Mexico: trends, socio-geographical variations and associated factors]. / Mortalidad por homicidios en México: tendencias, variaciones socio-geográficas y factores asociados.

This study seeks to analyze the trend of homicide rates (total and by firearm) in Mexico between 1990 and 2009 and identify the variables that best explain the geographical variations of these rates in the 2008-2009 two-year period. Homicide rates, adjusted for age, were calculated for both sexes between 1990 and 2009 and for each state in 2008-2009. Factors associated with the interstate variations in the homicide rates were identified using multiple linear regression analysis. Results show that the homicide rate in Mexico decreased between 1990 and 2007, but doubled over the last two years (from 7.6 to 16.6 per 100,000). In 2009, the male homicide rate was almost 9 times higher than the female rate and about two-thirds of homicides involved firearms. Multivariate analysis reveals that impunity, drug trafficking, alcohol and drug consumption and school dropout in basic education - in that order - are key factors for understanding the geographical variations in homicide rates in Mexico in 2008-2009. Findings suggest that to reduce the number of homicide victims and spatial variations in the rate, it is necessary not only to fight the drug cartels, but above all to implement structural reforms in the criminal justice system and reduce the socioeconomic disparities among states.

[Assessment of the ability of first contact physicians in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis]. / Evaluación de la competencia para el tratamiento de la artritis reumatoide por médicos de primer contacto.

Rheumatic Diseases (RD) are part of the 20 most frequent reasons for consultation in family medicine, therefore, it is mandatory that family physicians perform an opportune recognizement and therapeutic approach of RD. The aim of this study was to measure the clinical competence for identification and therapeutic approach of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) of 144 from 450 family physicians by using a structured and validated instrument. The FP Sample was obtain from 5 randomly selected from 23 Family Medicine Units of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social in the city of Guadalajara, Mexico. Main outcome measure was the clinical competence of FP, defined as the capacity to interpretate, to evaluate and proposals realized in its clinical practice. Competence levels were expressed in an ordinal scale and its association with other variables was assessed by using Kruskal-Wallis test or Chi square test. Clinical competence median value was 47.3, ranking from -6 to 90, and no statistical difference was found when comparing by Family Medicine Unit, neither when comparing by other variables. We conclude that 15.3 % of FP met clinical competence for identification and therapeutic approach of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Efecto de una intervención psicoeducativa para disminuir el Síndrome Burnout en personal de confianza de la Comisión Federal de Electricidad / Effect of a psycho-educative intervention to decrease Burnout Syndrome on confidence employees working for the CFE (Federal Electric Comission)

Modern life imposes several different labor demands on human beings; thus, bringing about stressing situations. All those events perceived as threatening bringing about tension are called stressors. A stressing situation comes about when there exists a discrepancy between environment demands and adequate resources to cope with them. All these factors lead to physiological, cognitive and motor responses which enhance perception and create the need of better solutions to allow appropriate adaptation behaviors. When stress is present at the workplace in a recurrent fashion, it is known as Labor Stress (LS), an alarming circumstance affecting individuals and organizations. Main causes of LS are: physical conditions, schedule, work position, interpersonal relations and other organizational variables. Labor Stress is a public health and a labor health problem, for it is related to an increase in labor accident, morbidity and absenteeism rates; thus, generating negative attitudes that yield economic loss to institutions. The Burnout Syndrome (BS) is a response to chronically labor stress manifested through emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, as well as hostile and aggressive attitudes toward workmates and service users, resulting in a feeling of poor personal development. Objective Assess the effect of a psycho-educative intervention to decrease BS in managing or directive employees from one sector of CFE Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Materials and methodology A quasi-experimental study was carried out; this included measurements prior and after educative intervention carried out on confidence employees from CFE Guadalajara from February through September 2005. The study sample was made up of 29 managing or directive employees, conforming four groups; one random-selected group received educative intervention; the other three were control groups; different questionnaires were applied: personal data, psycho-social factors and BS through the Maslach Burnout Inventory Scale (MBI). From a participative-educational view point, encouraged by the Pan-American Health Organization (PHO), the educative intervention sought health promotion through the betterment and consistency of mental and physical wellbeing. All BS concepts as well as psychological factors were analyzed. Other workshop included the development of preventing, coping and treatment strategies at individual and social levels. Finally, a corrective program directed to decreasing psychological risk factors in the organization was encouraged. Also, a post-intervention assessment was applied. Results Subjects had an average age of 31.5 ± 6.8 years; 52% were females; group 1 decreased for all indicators; emotional exhaustion from 71% to 29%; depersonalization from 43% to 14%; lack of personal development from 57% to 14%. However, no significant difference was found in both groups by sex. Discussion In personnel with specific responsibilities, obligations, opportunities, challenges and rewards based on their performance work environment often drives them to frustration and despair. When the employee believes that gives more than he receives, he becomes emotionally exhausted and more even if he do not have the resources to cope with the prospect of work. Also, it is documented that at younger age there is an increased risk of presenting the Burnout. This is because interpersonal relationships are more contentious because of the lack of experience in management. In the series reported, on both groups we were not able to document this relationship, but still, there is a lack of an international consensus to recognize this as a risk factor. Mingote describes that when the employee has less than five years working, they are often idealistic, utopian dreamers, unlike those with more than ten years in the job and are in risk of experiencing monotony at work, loss of interest and the downgrade. Also, this type of workers is subject to overtime. This excess produces physical and mental stress and leads to lower feelings of personal accomplishment. Even though there could be resources for coping with the monotony at work and that provides resources for better interpersonal communication and support networks at work. If the worker feels happy with the work carried out, and feels as an autonomous decision maker able to practice his skills, then he will have the protective factors to cope with the Syndrome of Burnout at work and it is unlikely that he will found in his work a monotonous and a routine activity with little opportunity to practice their skills. The emotional exhaustion related to fatigue and tiredness are caused by excessive wear at work and very demanding work environments with little autonomy and control of work situations. Depletion causes difficulties with daily responsibilities, these factors are related to the work system and the social interactions in the workplace, which after the educative intervention modifies the emotional exhaustion level in the experimental group (29% of group). The depersonalization causes people to be treated as objects (coldness and insensitivity) causing the worker indifference and little empathy with the task of work. Although the level of depersonalization was low in the groups, it decreased in the experimental group, which may be caused by the coping mechanisms embedded in the educational intervention. The lack of personal accomplishment includes the limitations to understand the feelings and emotions of fellow workers and also have a positive influence for them to create pleasant environments (these completion rates increased in the intervention group). In developing countries, there is now general agreement on the importance of the behaviors and lifestyles in the generation of health problems as well as the importance of early healthy lifestyles. All countries have agreed to launch health and educational programs to prevent the modification of human behavior. This study provides a useful educational methodology that responds to how to bring workers to participate in their care, as well as a significant contribution to addressing a problem of this magnitude and importance to public health and health services in Latin America. Conclusion The psycho-educative program sensitized employees when developing strategies to decrease and control labor stressors that affects them, the same stressors that bring about BS.

La vida actual impone diversas demandas a los seres humanos provocando en ellos situaciones de estrés. Estos sucesos son percibidos como amenazantes, llegan a ocasionar tensión y se denominan estresores. La situación de estrés se presenta al existir una discrepancia entre las demandas del medio y los recursos para enfrentarlo; esto ocasiona en el organismo respuestas fisiológicas, cognitivas y motoras que agudizan la percepción y, de esta manera, originan una mayor búsqueda de soluciones; entre ellas las conductas de adaptación. Cuando el estrés está presente en el área de trabajo de forma recurrente se le conoce como Estrés Laboral (EL), circunstancia alarmante que afecta al individuo y a la organización. Las principales fuentes de EL son: condiciones físicas, horario y puesto de trabajo, además de las relaciones interpersonales y otras variables organizacionales. Ese síndrome representa un problema de salud pública y de salud laboral, ya que se relaciona con un aumento en la tasa de accidentes laborales. Además genera ausentismo laboral que se traduce en pérdidas económicas para las instituciones. El Síndrome de Burnout (SB), es una respuesta al estrés laboral crónico que se manifiesta a través del agotamiento emocional, despersonalización, actitudes hostiles y agresivas con sus compañeros y usuarios del servicio, que finaliza en un sentimiento de pobre realización personal. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de una intervención psicoeducativa para disminuir el Burnout en el personal directivo de un Sector de la Comisión Federal de Electricidad en Guadalajara, Jalisco. Se realizó un estudio cuasi experimental con una medición pre y post a la intervención educativa. Ésta se efectuó en el personal de confianza de la Comisión Federal de Electricidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco; durante los meses de febrero a septiembre del 2005. La muestra de trabajadores se integró por 29 sujetos que ejercen un puesto directivo, conformando cuatro grupos; un grupo elegido al azar recibió la intervención educativa y los otros fueron de control. A los grupos se les aplicaron diferentes cuestionarios: 1. Datos personales, 2. Factores psicosociales, 3. Escala de Maslach Burnout Inventory para medir el síndrome de Burnout (MBI). Desde la perspectiva de la educación participativa que impulsa la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS), la intervención educativa buscó la promoción de la salud por medio de diversos talleres con el fin de mejorar y mantener su bienestar físico y mental. En uno de los talleres se analizaron los conceptos del Síndrome de Burnout y sus factores psicosociales. Posteriormente se analizaron los factores que modulan y desencadenan el síndrome. Otro taller consintió en desarrollar estrategias de prevención, afrontamiento y manejo del Burnout a nivel individual y social. Fina l mente se impulsó un programa correctivo orientado a disminuir los factores de riesgo psicosocial de la organización y se aplicó la evaluación postintervención. Se muestra una edad promedio de 31.5±6.8 años, el 52% fueron del sexo femenino. El grupo uno disminuyó en todos los indicadores: agotamiento emocional de 71 % a 29%, la despersonalización de 43% a 14%, la falta de realización personal de 57% a 14%. Sin embargo, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en ambos sexos. El programa psicoeducativo sensibilizó al personal para fomentar el desarrollo de estrategias para disminuir y controlar los estresores laborales que les afectan, mismos que originan el Síndrome de Burnout.

[Risk factors in cesarean section]. / Factores de riesgo en la operación cesárea.

BACKGROUND: Improvement of surgical techniques, innovation, and technological development have increased the frequency of cesarean section. OBJECTIVE: To identify the sociodemographics, obstetrical, attention and medical practice factors of risk most frequently associated to cesarean section. PATIENTS AND METHOD: From January to June 2007, we carried out a study of cases and controls with 222 cases of cesarean section and 358 controls of vaginal childbirth in Hospital General no. 6 of Ciudad Juárez. We compared frequency of sociodemographics, obstetrical, attention, and medical practice variables, by means of chi2 and Fisher exact tests; association among these variables and cesarean section was considered with odds ratio. In all cases chosen confidence interval was 95%. RESULTS: Risk factors associated with cesarean section were: maternal age over 28 years, previous cesarean section, complicated pregnancy, fetal suffering, cephalopelvic disproportion, deficient prenatal care; fetal podalic version, oxytocin administration, abnormal amniotic fluid, double- or triple-circle umbilical cord; patient attended by a gynecologist with more than 16 years of experience and by a resident; and medical care in evening shift. There was no association with age, menarche, beginning of sexual relationships, body mass index, smoking, or addictions. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors associated with cesarean section were: previous cesarean section and patient attended by a gynecologist with more than 16 years of experience and by a resident.

Aptitud clínica de los médicos familiares en la identificación de la disfunción familiar en unidades de medicina familiar de Guadalajara, México

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

Abstract: Introduction Families function as dynamic systems, where the different members stimulate each other to achieve common objectives. Family development is thus conceived as a chain of changes, in form and function, which follow evolution stages. The balance of positive and negative forces inside the family is translated into an evolution, and so the ability to respond to internal or external changes is vital to avoid discrepancies or clashes between the tasks and roles of the different family members. In this sense, family physicians must be able to identify any potential dysfunction or difficulty inside the family, and to facilitate the compatibility of tasks in order to reestablish the continuity and good functioning of the family. The family physicians' clinical aptitude is made up of a series of abilities intended to identify any signs and symptoms of dys-function. They must also be skilled in using auxiliary resources for the diagnosis and treatment of all these. Such an aptitude is measured by a structured and validated instrument. Material and methods This is an observational, prospective and comparative research of a 450 family physicians sample from 23 first level family health care medical clinics from the National Social Security Institute (Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social: IMSS). All family physicians working at the clinics were included, excepting those who were at the time on vacation, worked the night shift, attended the ER, were absent or refused to participate. Clinical aptitude for family dysfunction was measured in three areas: 1. Identification of risk factors for family dysfunction; 2. Diagnosis with an integral point of view and 3. Proposal, identification and guidance, which describes a physician's ability to judge decisions taken on case reports and to propose alternative actions. Other variables taken into account were sex, age, specialty, years of experience, shift, clinic and type of contract. Instruments. The instrument was designed to integrate theory and practice. It was conformed by real case reports, which were condensed, divided in sections, and followed by a series of ques-tions with three possible answers: «true¼, «false¼ or «I don't know¼. In total, there were 187 questions, 94 of which were true and 93, false. Correct answers accounted for one point, while incorrect ones rested one point; «I don't know¼ answers had no effect on the results. There were 42 lines to explore risk factors; 24 to explore the use of diagnostic resources; 19 to explore the use of therapeutic resources; 36 to evaluate a physician's knowledge of family sociology; 42 to assess family psychology, and 24 designed to evaluate proposal abilities. It was all validated and standardized with a group of post-graduate medical residents in Family Medicine from Mexico City. The Richardson K index was 0.90. Clinical aptitude was measured using an ordinal scale, where a random level «1¼ was defined by <60 points; a low «2¼ level by 60-99 points; an intermediate «3¼ level by 100-139 points, and a high «4¼ level by >140 points. A descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was used with median, percentage, Mann-Whitney's and Kruskal-Wallis' tests. All this was then processed with the EPI INFO-6 and SPSS Plus software packages. Ethical considerations. This is a risk-free research, as established in the Health Research section of the Mexican Health Law. Ne-vertheless, a signed acceptance form was required from all participants. Results Table 1 shows the general characteristics of the study sample. In turn, table 2 presents clinical aptitude to identify family dysfunction, sorted by clinic. Clinics B and D had, respectively, a median of 105 and 102, with similar ranges. There were no statistically significant differences among the subindexes of each clinic. The diagnosis median was higher than that for guidance. Table 3 reveals a high level of clinical aptitude in 3% of the physicians, an intermediate level in 25%, a low level in 58%, and a random-defined level in 14%. There were no significant differences when clinical aptitude was correlated with sex, shift, type of contract, specialty and years of experience. Discussion. The main objective of a family dysfunction diagnosis is to reestablish the normal flow of a family's vital cycle with the support of a specialized physician. It has been reported that clinical aptitude measurement is useful to discriminate and establish the aptitude level of experiment and non-experiment physi-cians with the aim of creating educational opportunities. A slight advantage, with no significant difference, was appreciated in physicians who attended patients in their offices, which suggests they are in a better position to gain a higher level of trust from their patients. This is due to the fact that they attend a regular set group of patients assigned to their offices. Since the education of family physicians is aimed at offering an integral care to families, family dysfunction recognition is essential. Results also suggest a non-significant advantage from family physicians with curricular education (not all family physicians working at the IMSS have a degree in Family Medicine). Experienced physicians (10 to 19 years on the job) showed another non-significant advantage, which pointed to the value of clinical practice. This is a powerful reason to promote continuous educational programs for family physicians. Family physicians who worked the morning shift showed a non-statistical advantage over their afternoon shift counterparts. This could be explained by the fact that educational and other institutional activities are more likely to take place in the morning. The educational model of family physicians should promote the physicians' involvement in understanding how to become active elements in gathering their own knowledge. Such a model should promote physicians' initiatives for the development of an experience based on constructive critic. The current health care model is mainly focused on a biological interpretation of the health-disease process. However, this is only a partial approach which prevents the implementation of an integral clinical practice. From our research, we expect changes in institutional health care orientation and a reframing of the curricula of general and family physicians'. Although the acquisition of clinical aptitude requires the physicians' experience and involvement in developing their own knowledge, our results do not reflect this ideal condition. This is due to the low percentage of clinical aptitude, which correlates with an evident inability for research and interpretation. Half of the physicians were capable of elaborating diagnostic hypothesis and two thirds of them showed a adequate use of diagnostic resources, such as clinical tests, functional family diagnostic instruments and a guide to conform an integral family workup. All these should be useful educational tools to establish the social functions diagnosis of a family's members, together with their formal and informal roles and their importance in the healthdisease process. Guidance requires the ability to judge decisions taken by other professionals and make suggestions for alternative actions in case reports. This latter skill includes the use of therapeutic resources for only less than half of the physicians know how to properly use these resources. The use of instruments to measure aptitude, competency and work performance is a growing practice in continuous education and human resources formation. Even though these instruments are capable of discriminating high clinical aptitude, they cannot be used to account for this non-significant advantage, because educational activities are conceived as the consumption of infor mation and not as the acquisition of it from each one's experience. Overall, 58% of the family physicians showed a low level of clinical aptitude. Such a result reflects a poor ability to integrate daily experience.

Valoración global de la aptitud clínica de médicos familiares en el manejo de la diabetes mellitus con nefropatía inicial / Clinical aptitude of the family doctors front of sick patients with diabetes type two with initial nephropathy

The diabetic nephropathy in initial phase requires an opportune identification by family physicians. Indeed, they should be qualified to interpret the data that suggesting that a patient be going through that phase of the illness, in order to orientate the management and processing of the same one, from an integrative perspective. The purpose of this work was to measure the aptitude of the family doctors to interpret, to judge and to propose in front of sick patients with diabetes type two with initial nephropathy. We made this with a representative sample of family physicians in five Family Medicine Units of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social in the city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. The main variable of the study was the clinical aptitude of the doctors: interpretation, judgment and proposals carried out in the practice of their profession; and through an ordinal scale, levels of aptitude were defined, which related to the remainder of variables using the medium, Kruskal Wallis stadiometer and x2.

La nefropatía diabética en etapa inicial requiere de una oportuna identificación por parte de los médicos familiares. De hecho, ellos deberían estar capacitados para interpretar los datos que sugieren que el paciente está cursando esa etapa de la enfermedad, con el objetivo de orientar el manejo y tratamiento de la misma desde una perspectiva integradora. El propósito del presente trabajo fue medir la capacidad de aptitud clínica del médico, frente al caso clínico de un enfermo con diabetes tipo 2 con nefropatía inicial. Con este fin se utilizó un instrumento estructurado y validado, en una muestra representativa de 101 de 450 médicos familiares en cinco de veintitrés Unidades de Medicina Familiar del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social en la Ciudad de Guadalajara, Jalisco, elegidos por conglomerados en dos etapas. La principal variable de estudio fue la aptitud clínica de los médicos definida como la capacidad de interpretación, evaluación y propuestas que éstos realizan en la práctica de su profesión (indicadores de factores de riesgo, integración diagnóstica, uso de paraclínicos y recursos terapéuticos). Los niveles de aptitud se definieron a través de una escala ordinal y se relacionaron con el resto de variables utilizando la mediana, el estadígrafo de Kruskal Wallis, y la x2. La mediana de la aptitud clínica fue de 73 con rango de 18 a 113, al relacionar entre las unidades de atención médica. Con el resto de variables de estudio no se demostró diferencia estadísticamente significativa. Se concluye que 8% de los médicos familiares reúne la aptitud para el manejo de la nefropatía inicial del diabético 2.

[Clinical aptitude of family doctors in the management of patients with diabetes type two with initial nephropathy]. / Valoración global de la aptitud clínica de médicos familiares en el manejo de la diabetes mellitus con nefropatía inicial.

The diabetic nephropathy in initial phase requires an opportune identification by family physicians. Indeed, they should be qualified to interpret the data that suggesting that a patient be going through that phase of the illness, in order to orientate the management and processing of the same one, from an integrative perspective. The purpose of this work was to measure the aptitude of the family doctors to interpret, to judge and to propose in front of sick patients with diabetes type two with initial nephropathy. We made this with a representative sample of family physicians in five Family Medicine Units of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social in the city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. The main variable of the study was the clinical aptitude of the doctors: interpretation, judgment and proposals carried out in the practice of their profession; and through an ordinal scale, levels of aptitude' were defined, which related to the remainder of variables using the medium, Kruskal Wallis stadiometer and chi2.